2nd Global Virology Congress

General Virology

Virology is the scientific study of viruses and virus-like agents.  A virus is a parasitic intracellular organism and that’s a protein-coated genetic material. When it comes to size, shape, and chemical makeup, these are heterogeneous intracellular groups of microorganisms that either contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA).

The primary focus of virology is on the structure, classification, and evolution of viruses as well as how they interact with host and immune response, the diseases they cause, how to isolate and culture them, and how to use them in research and therapy.

Viruses are distinct life forms that different from all other living organisms, either eukaryotes or prokaryotes, for following fundamental reasons:

• The characteristics of the habitat in which they thrive and proliferate.
• Genomic nature
• The mode of their multiplication
• Its chemical composition
• Size of viruses

Usually, virus classification is based on the structure and composition of the virus particle (virion). viruses are classified into various families and each has a different chemical composition. Those are:

• Animal viruses
• Human or medical Virus
• Plant viruses
• Bacteriophage
• RNA viruses
• DNA viruses
• Retroviruses

The list of virus infections that have had a major socioeconomic impact recently is provided below.

• AIDS
• Ebola
• Influenza
• SARS
• Chikungunya
• Smallpox
• Corona Virus

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Antiviral Research

Antivirals are substances that suppress the infection caused by viruses as well as the replication of viruses. Drugs called antivirals can be administered to either prevent or treat illnesses brought on by viruses. Antiviral research includes all aspects of creating medications, vaccines, and immunotherapies against viruses that affect plants, humans and animals.

Particularly in the most developing nations, numerous dangerous human diseases caused by viral infections have very high mortality rates. Because viral mutation rates are so rapid, new drug-resistant strains are constantly arising, necessitating the creation of fresh and potentially more effective antiviral drugs.

Recently, antiviral drugs have been found to be effective in preventing the virus (SARS-CoV-2) from infecting and spreading to healthy cells in our body and developing COVID-19. In addition to helping your immune system fight off infection, this prevents the virus from spreading throughout your body.

Additionally, novel antiviral drug development deserves a lot of attention. Recent evaluations suggest new therapy for many viral illnesses.

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Antiviral Drug Discovery and Development

The term “Antiviral” refers to a substance that either kills viruses or limits their ability to replicate, preventing them from spreading and reproducing.

It is crucial for the development of antiviral medications to comprehend the chemical biology of the virus, in particular how it interacts with the host cell.

Particularly for the treatment of viral infections, antiviral drugs are employed. In a manner similar to how antibiotics are used to treat bacterial diseases, certain antiviral drugs are used to treat particular viruses. Unlike most antibiotics, antiviral drugs don't cure diseases. Instead, they just stop them from getting worse.

Antiviral drugs can be grouped according to their chemical nature or how they react with certain viral proteins. There are numerous types of antiviral drugs that can treat viruses, including:

• Nucleoside analogs
• Non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitors
• Protease inhibitors
• Neuraminidase inhibitors
• M2 channel blockers
• Interferons

The following methods are used to assess antiviral activity:

• In vitro assay
• MTT assay
• Direct assays
• Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay
• Immunofluorescence assay
• Plaque reduction assay
• Hemagglutination assay

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Coronavirus Disease COVID-19

Coronaviruses are a type of virus that can cause respiratory disease in humans. Due to the crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus, they are referred to as "corona." The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and the common cold are examples of human illnesses caused by coronaviruses.

In December of 2019, the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus strain was initially identified in Wuhan, China. It has since spread to every nation on the planet.

The COVID-19-causing SARS-CoV-2 virus enters the body through the mouth, nose, or eyes (directly from the airborne droplets or from the transfer of the virus from your hands to your face). The virus then moves to the nasal passages and the mucous membrane at the back of the throat. It binds to cells there, multiplies, and then migrates into lung tissue. The virus can then spread to other tissues of the body.

Those at the most risk for getting COVID-19 include those who:

• Reside in or have recently gone to a region with ongoing aggressive spread;
• Have had close contact with a person with a confirmed or suspected case of the COVID-19 virus
• Are over 60 years old and have pre-existing medical issues or a week immune system.
• Maintain a minimum distance of 6 feet between yourself and other people whenever possible.
• When in the presence of others, use a mask that covers your mouth and nose.
• Wash hands frequently. Use a hand sanitizer containing at least 60% alcohol in the absence of soap.
• Avoid crowded indoor locations. As much as possible, crack open windows to let in fresh air.
• Remain self-isolated at home if you are ill with symptoms that could be COVID-19 or if you get a positive COVID-19 test result.
• Clean and sanitise surfaces that are regularly touched.

Symptoms of COVID-19 vary across individuals. In reality, some infected people do not manifest symptoms (asymptomatic). In general, individuals with COVID-19 exhibit some of the following symptoms:

• Fever or the shivers
• Cough
• Breathing difficulties or shortness of breath
• Tiredness
• Body or muscle aches
• Headaches
• Loss of taste or scent
• Tonsillitis
• Nasal congestion or discharge
• Vomiting and/or nausea
• Diarrhea

Few antiviral drugs that are used to treat Covid 19 includes:

• Remdesivir
• Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid)
• Bebtelovimab
• Molnupiravir
• Covishield
• Covaxin vaccine
• Two COVID-19 vaccines – Pfizer and Moderna - have been fully approved by the FDA and recommended by the CDC as highly effective in preventing serious disease, hospitalization and death from COVID-19.

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Medical Virology

Medical virology and medical microbiology are concerned with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of infection spread in hospitals and the community.

Despite the fact that both of these specialisations are lab-based, they are crucial to the clinical therapy of infections. Medical virologists do their research in many different places, such as labs, clinics, hospital wards, and the general public. They deal with problems brought on by newly developing and long-standing viruses like SARS and avian flu, in addition to HIV/AIDS and other blood-borne illnesses like hepatitis B and C.

Medial virology encompass the classification, diagnosis, epidemiology, immunology, and pathogenesis of viral infections in humans, as well as fundamental studies on the morphology, genetics, replication, and host-cell interactions of viruses.

Understanding the pathogenetic mechanisms by which viruses enter, spread inside, and depart the body is also crucial for proper illness diagnosis and treatment. There are many aspects of medical virology that are currently well understood, many more that are still uncertain, and some that are slowly becoming vibrant. The properties of viruses and the interactions they have with their hosts are important to understand in order to successfully explore and treat viral pathologic diseases.

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Emerging and Re-emerging Viral Diseases

In particular, the current decade is concerned with the emergence of novel human infections and the re-emergence of several diseases.

Emerging viral disease: A disease that has recently revealed in a population or may have existed in the past but is expanding quickly in terms of incidence or geographic reach is considered an emerging disease by the World Health Organization (WHO).

Emerging infections are essentially illnesses whose prevalence has been observed to have increased in recent decades or has threatened to increase in the future. Such emergences frequently occur as a result of the discovery or expansion of a pathogen in more recent locations, the identification of diseases that have been prevalent in a community but were previously unknown.

A few recent human emerging viral diseases are:

• Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
• Hendra virus infection
• Nipah virus infection
• Middle east respiratory syndrome
• COVID-19

Re-emerging viral disease: Diseases that appear after a prolonged period of decrease are referred to as re-emerging diseases. Re-emergence of diseases that were once under control could be caused by a failure in public health policies. They may also take place when novel variations of existing disease-causing organisms are discovered.

Re-emerging infections typically inflict a considerable loss of life, and because of their rapid international spread, they are a huge source of fear and distress. Whereas, in addition to being dangerous to human health, emerging pathogens provide a severe threat to development, security, and the economy.

Human re-emerging viral infections include some of the following:

• West nile virus
• Dengue virus
• Zika virus disease
• Lassa virus
• Ebola virus

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Translational Virology in Pregnancy

Translational virology: The process of creating new information and scientific evidence for healthcare requirements is known as translational virology. As with the creation of COVID-19 drugs and vaccines, governmental organisations and authorities have a significant influence on this process. Basic, preclinical, and clinical research, drug production, and drug regulation and approval are the several subfields of translational virology.

Translational virology in pregnancy: Pregnant women's health and the health of their unborn children are being adversely affected by more frequent viral pandemics like the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Depending on the virus, infection during pregnancy may increase the risk of more serious prenatal sickness, preterm birth, preeclampsia, stillbirth, and/or a long-term increase in the risk of neuropsychiatric disorder in the children.

To understand the effects of viral infections during pregnancy on the foetus, usually starts with in vitro and in vivo models, concentrating on the placental reaction to infection
Some of the viruses that associated with pregnancy are:

• Ebola virus
• Hepatitis B virus (HBV)
• Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
• Hepatitis E virus (HEV)
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• Zika virus
• SARS-COV-2
   

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AIDS Research and Therapy

The term "AIDS" refers to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a condition occurred by severe immunosuppression that can result in opportunistic infections, secondary neoplasms, and neurological symptoms. AIDS is brought on by the retrovirus HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), and it is characterised by immunodeficiency.

Over the past few decades, researchers have learned a lot about the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the sickness it causes, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). But more study is needed to help the millions of people whose health is still at jeopardy as a result of the global HIV/AIDS pandemic.

AIDS Therapy:
Although there is currently no treatment for AIDS, HIV and its consequences can be managed with medicines. Treatments aim to lower the amount of HIV in your body, maintain a strong immune system, and lessen any difficulties you might experience.

Despite the fact that there is no known cure for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), medications have shown to be quite effective in combating HIV and its adverse effects. Drug treatments aim to keep your immune system healthy, lower your body's amount of HIV, and prevent future issues

Here is a list of some of the medications that the FDA has approved for use in treating HIV and AIDS.

• Abacavir 
• Didanosine 
• Emtricitabine 
• Amprenavir 
• Atazanavir 
• Fosamprenavir 
   

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Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

Tropical medicine is a field of medicine that focuses on treating infectious and non-infectious disorders in tropical regions.

The three major infections in the tropics are

• Malaria
• Tuberculosis
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS

In addition to a wide range of noncommunicable disorders like vitamin deficiency, snakebite, scorpion sting, and toxin-related cardiac and neurologic symptoms, tropical medicine deals with uncommon and exotic parasite and bacterial illnesses. Consequently, this field includes internal medicine in addition to microbiology, virology, parasitology, and epidemiology.

Although it plays a significant role in global health, tropical medicine focuses more on the specific tropical infections that affect low-resource areas. It pays close attention to the pathogens, their vectors, how they spread, how to treat and prevent them, as well as how to create new drugs, insecticides, diagnostics, and vaccines to fight these diseases.

Hygiene:Hygiene is the practise of keeping oneself and one's surroundings clean, especially to prevent illness or the spread of disease. By maintaining adequate cleanliness, one can avoid contracting many contagious diseases, including fecal-oral infections. It makes a substantial contribution to the promotion of improved health and wellness. However, due to a lack of access to needs like clean water and soap, maintaining personal hygiene can be challenging in many parts of the world.

The various forms of hygiene include:

• Personal hygiene
• Environmental hygiene
• Domestic hygiene
• Food hygiene

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Interferon and Cytokine Research

Interferon:
Initially, interferons were thought to be an antiviral agent that prevented viral replication in mammalian cells. They are secreted by infected cells, where they cause cytokine synthesis by the innate immune system, as well as activity in natural killer cells and antigen presentation.

In response to pathogens, host lymphocytes release interferons, which are glycoprotein cytokines. Interferons interact with receptors that trigger STAT signalling complexes to activate or upregulate immune cells via activating or upregulating STAT signalling. In the end, this results in the removal of the pathogen or tumour cells from the organism.

Cytokine Research:
Currently, cytokines are referred to as "immunomodulating agents," or molecules that alter or modify the immune system response. Small, membrane-bound proteins known as cytokines serve as cell signalling molecules. They encourage cell migration to regions of inflammation, infection, and injury and facilitate cell-to-cell communication during immune responses.

Cytokines plays a crucial role in controlling the growth and activity of the immune system cells and blood cells. When injected subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously, they can be used to treat cancer and/or assist in preventing or managing chemotherapy side effects. By transmitting signals that can result in aberrant cell death and lengthen the lifespan of healthy cells, they also contribute to the promotion of anti-cancer activity.
There are different types of cytokines, including 

• Chemokines
• Interferons
• Interleukins
• Lymphokines 
• Tumor necrosis factor
   

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Bacterial and Fungal Virology

Bacterial virology:
Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms with a single cell and no real nucleus. They also lack some other organelles.

Bacteriophages are so little that they do not even have a single cell. They just have a single strand of DNA that is encased in a protein sheath. Bacteriophages can cause bacteria to erupt and release a high number of new phages when they infect bacteria.

The billions of bacteria and bacteriophages found in the human body are necessary for a typical, healthy life. Because of the prevalence of bacteriophages and their connections to bacteria, bacteriophage study has grown to be a significant area of biology.

Fungal virology:
Mycoviruses, sometimes called mycophages, are viruses that affect fungi. In comparison to the other 70% of mycoviruses, which have double-stranded RNA genomes and isometric particles, only 30% of them have positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genomes.

Numerous viruses associated with fungi infect their hosts latently. With the exception of killer-immune features in yeasts, smuts, and hypovirulence in the chestnut blight fungus, fungi do not have well-established properties that can be directly related to viral infection.

Most common fungal infections include:

• Athlete’s foot
• Ringworm
• Jock itch
• Genital candidiasis
   

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Cellular Microbiology

The scientific study of microbial cell processes and characteristics is known as cellular microbiology. This field combines the methods and concepts of traditional cell biology and microbiology. Examples of cellular microorganisms include bacteria, archaea, fungi, and protists. Cells can be found in one or more in microorganisms. 

By utilising cell biology techniques and pathogenic bacteria as research tools, cellular microbiology seeks to better understand microbial pathogenicity. Microbe poisons and virulence factors have been utilised for decades to influence and investigate eukaryotic cell processes.

Because putting a pure toxin on a cell doesn't always give you the whole picture, it is crucial to comprehend the toxin's role in pathogenicity, how it supports the microbe, how it is created, and the co-evolution of the toxin and its host-cell equivalents.

Emerging technologies and cellular microbiology models of infection include: 

• Light microscopy techniques
• Electron microscopy techniques
• Cellular microbiology infection models
   

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Clinical and Diagnostic Virology

Due to the convergence of numerous independent advances, diagnostic virology is quickly advancing into the clinical medicine mainstream.

First and foremost, the development of antiviral medications has dramatically boosted the demand for accurate viral diagnosis.

Second, significant new methods for viral diagnostics have been made possible by technological advancements, particularly in the field of nucleic acid chemistry.

Third, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has significantly increased the number of people who are at risk for opportunistic viral infections.

Finally, the integration of molecular approaches into the treatment of chronic viral diseases is being revolutionised by the contemporary therapy of HIV infection and hepatitis C.

Methods used in diagnostic virology

• Viral cytopathology
• Electron microscopy
• Immunofluorescence
• Enzyme immunoassay
• Nucleic acid hybridization
• Polymerase chain reaction

Clinical virology is the study of viral diseases and the use of traditional, molecular, or immunological methods for laboratory diagnosis, treatment (antiviral medications), and control (vaccines and biocontainment).
Molecular methods, detection and molecular typing, and the application of molecular biology techniques to clinical virology have all significantly improved enteroviral diagnosis. Sensitivity and specificity have improved significantly.
 

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Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been ground-breaking in reducing the severity of HIV from a fatal illness to a tolerable chronic condition, but it does not offer a cure. Patients must commit to taking drugs for the rest of their lives and deal with problems such inadequate viral suppression, social stigma, drug resistance, adverse drug reactions, and unaffordable expenditures. Since finding a cure for HIV is a highly desirable aim for patients.

Additionally, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), an HIV medication used to prevent HIV, is an option for those who are HIV-negative and at risk for HIV infection. But regrettably, in 2020, there were an anticipated 30,403 new HIV infections in the United States and 1.5 million new HIV infections worldwide. We require a potent arsenal of HIV preventive strategies that are broadly available to everybody who could benefit from them if we are to control and ultimately eradicate HIV globally.

The long-term objective is to create a vaccine that can prevent HIV infection in all populations. However, even if a vaccine only offers partial protection to those who receive it or even if it only offers partial protection by lowering the risk of infection, it could still have a significant impact on transmission rates and aid in the control of the pandemic, especially for populations with a high risk of contracting HIV. A partially successful vaccination might lower the number of HIV infections, which would lower the number of carriers of the virus. We can put an end to the epidemic by drastically lowering the number of new infections.
 

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Pediatric Viral Infectious Diseases

A virus is a tiny infectious organism that must enter a living cell in order to proliferate. It is much smaller than a fungus or bacterium.

Although viral infections can affect people of all ages, they frequently seem to be more prevalent among babies and young children. The majority of viral infections in children are not serious, although they can cause a variety of conditions like colds, sore throats, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever with a rash. Due to extensive inoculation, several viral diseases that might cause more severe sickness, such the measles, are now less frequent. 

Children and teenagers with viral diseases caused by a variety of viral viruses are regularly treated by doctors. These infections could present in a variety of ways. According to the patient's age and immunocompetence, the clinical signs and symptoms of various diseases differ and are unique to the virus that is causing the infection. Most kids with viral infections recover without any treatment. Fever and bodily pains or discomfort are the most usual symptoms of viral infections.

The majority of viral infections in children are characterised by self-limited sickness that can be managed symptomatically and result in full recovery.

The following are common childhood diseases:

• Common cold
• Ear infections
• Influenza
• Bronchitis
• Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
• Conjunctivitis
• Sinusitis
• Strep throat
   

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Tumour Virus Research

Tumour virus infections are usually caused by oncogenic DNA or RNA viruses.

Two main mechanisms exist for how they can cause cancer.

1. Directly through the release of viral proteins that disrupt tissue cells and lead to their transformation
2. Indirectly by viral integration, also known as insertional mutagenesis, which leads to DNA alteration in the host cell.

Tumor virus infections can undoubtedly result in major health issues in both humans and animals. The most serious health issue associated with these infections is tumour induction. Depending on the type of nucleic acid they contain, tumour viruses can be classified as either DNA viruses or RNA viruses.

Human tumour viruses cause at least 15% of all cases of human cancer. Currently known causes of human tumours include the small DNA tumour viruses known as human papillomaviruses (HPVs) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV)
 

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Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases

Vector-Borne Diseases:
vectors are living organisms that can spread contagious infections from animals to people or between humans. Insects that feed on blood from an infected host (human or animal) and consume disease-causing bacteria do make up a large portion of these vectors. Once the pathogen has multiplied, it is then transmitted into a new host. The infection can often be passed on for the rest of the vector's life through every consecutive bite or blood meal once the vector becomes infectious.

Infections that are transmitted through the bite of an infected arthropod species, such as a mosquito, tick, triatomine bug, sandfly, or blackfly, are known as vector-borne diseases. Arthropod vectors are particularly vulnerable to environmental changes due to their cold-blooded (ectothermic) nature.

A few diseases that are spread by vectors include 

• Malaria
• Lyme Disease
• West Nile Virus
• Dengue Fever, And Others.

Zoonotic Diseases:
A  zoonosis is an infectious illness that has spread from an animal to people. Zoonotic pathogens, which can infect humans through direct contact, food, water, the environment, or unconventional agents, can be bacterial, viral, parasitic, or other types of pathogens.

All infectious diseases, even those that have already been identified, include zoonoses to a large extent. Certain diseases, including as HIV, start off as zoonotic strains before evolving into forms that are exclusive to humans. Two zoonoses that can cause repeated disease outbreaks include salmonellosis and the ebola virus. Others, such as the brand-new coronavirus that causes COVID-19, have the capacity to spread globally and trigger pandemics.
 

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Viral Hepatitis

Viral hepatitis is an infection that damages and inflames the liver. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E are a few of the viruses that cause the disease. Acute infections caused by the hepatitis A and E viruses are common. The hepatitis B, C, and D viruses can result in acute and chronic illnesses.
Hepatitis-causing viruses can be aggravated by toxins, excessive alcohol intake, some medicines, and particular medical conditions.

Symptoms:
Many patients with hepatitis A, B, C, D, or E may experience minor symptoms, if any at all. However, more severe symptoms may arise from each viral variant. Fever, malaise, lack of appetite, diarrhoea, nausea, abdominal pain, dark urine, and jaundice are some of the symptoms of hepatitis A, B, and C. In some instances, the virus can also result in a persistent liver infection, which may later progress to cirrhosis (liver scarring) or liver cancer. Death is a possibility for some patients.

Treatment:
Hepatitis B virus vaccinations are accessible and reliable (HBV). Additionally, this vaccine suppresses the growth of the hepatitis D virus (HDV), and when administered at delivery, it significantly lowers the chance of transmission from mother to child.

Antiviral medications can be used to treat chronic hepatitis B infection. Cirrhosis can be treated to delay its course, lower the risk of liver cancer, and increase long-term survival. Treatment is only necessary for a small percentage of those with chronic hepatitis B infection. Additionally, there is a vaccination for hepatitis E (HEV), however it is not yet generally accessible. HBV and HEV do not have specific therapies, and hospitalisation is typically not necessary. Because these infections have a significant impact on liver function, it is advisable to avoid using unneeded drugs.
 

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Viral Immunology

The study of immune responses to viruses is known as viral immunology. The immune system refers to a group of cells and proteins that work to defend the skin, nasal passages, intestinal tract, and other areas against external antigens like microbes (organisms including bacteria, fungus, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and poisons.

Viruses are necessary intracellular parasites that rely on their host to support their reproduction and spread to neighbouring cells. Human viral infections rarely cause mortality, despite the fact that they are extremely cytolytic to individual cells.

The study of immunity is beneficial to many medical professions, including rheumatology, virology, allergology (dermatology), bacteriology, cancer, and transplantation medicine.

Immunity is categorized in two types:

• Innate immunity 
• Adaptive immunity 

Medications:
Acyclovir (Zovirax), famciclovir (Famvir), and valacyclovir (Valtrex) are medications used to treat viral infections. They are effective against herpesvirus, especially herpes zoster and herpes genitalis. Ibuprofen and acetaminophen are medications used to treat viral fever.
 

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Viral Oncology

Viral oncology is a branch of oncology that focuses on using viral agents to treat malignancies. Oncovirus infections are widespread, but they rarely lead to malignancy. For the development of cancer, one or more additional insults, such as persistent inflammation, environmental mutagens, or immunosuppression are needed.

Oncovirus types are categorised into:

• Direct Carcinogens
• Indirect Carcinogens

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 are examples of oncogenic RNA viruses.

Viruses are used to infect and kill cancer cells as part of an immunotherapy technique called "oncolytic viruses." Long considered a means of eradicating cancer cells directly, oncolytic viruses. However, a growing amount of evidence points to the possibility that some oncolytic viruses may function, at least in part, by inducing an immunological reaction in the body against the malignancy.

Treatment:
Currently, only one oncolytic virus therapy has been given FDA approval to treat cancer:

T-VEC (Imlygic®) is a modified herpes simplex virus (HSV) that targets tumour cells and encourages their demise. It is authorised for specific groups of melanoma patients.
 

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Viral Vaccines

Viral vaccines are used to prevent viral infections, usually these contains either attenuated or inactivated viruses. 

Others contain antigens, which are fragments of viruses. Some contain complete viruses that have been damaged or killed. In either situation, the vaccination provides a patient with knowledge about the virus so that their immune system can train to identify it and defend itself. Unlike viruses that occur naturally, viral vaccinations do not infect the body. They can be injected (into the muscle or subcutaneously) or taken orally.

Types of viral vaccines:

• Live-attenuated vaccines
• Inactivated vaccines
• Subunit/recombinant vaccines
• Viral vector vaccines
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines

Although vaccines help to protect patients from infection, they can also have a number of negative side effects. These are indications that the immune system is strengthening its defences. The most typical side effects are as follows:

• Pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site
• Headache
• Chills
• Fever
• Nausea
• Muscle pain
• Fatigue
   

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Neuro Virology

Neuro virology is a multidisciplinary area that combines molecular biology, immunology, clinical neuroscience, and virology. The study of viruses that can infect the neurological system is the primary focus of the field. Additionally, the discipline investigates the use of viruses for gene therapy, eradicating undesirable populations of brain cells, and tracing neuroanatomical circuits.It also covers the diagnosis, epidemiology, and creation of particular antiviral drugs for disease treatment of viral infections of the CNS.

A good illustration of the latter is the usage of acyclovir to treat herpes simplex encephalitis. As a result, it is a field that has a lot to do with both human disease and many elements of neurology. Neurovirological investigations from both the clinical and fundamental levels occasionally produce complementary data.

Specific laboratory methods that used in neurovirology are as follows:

• Tissue culture of the nervous system
• Virus isolation
• Electron microscopy
• Serological analyses
• Viral antigen detection
• PCR in situ amplification
   

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Gene Delivery

Foreign genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, is introduced into host cells through a process called gene delivery. Gene expression must be induced via gene delivery into the host cell's DNA. The ability of the foreign gene delivery to remain stable inside the host cell and to either integrate into or replicate independently of the genome is necessary for successful gene delivery. Gene therapy for human genetic diseases primarily requires gene delivery systems. One of the most promising treatments for a variety of diseases, including inherited disorders, viral infections, and cancers, is gene therapy.

Gene delivery, which also has applications in the genetic modification of crops, is a crucial step in gene therapy for the introduction or silencing of a gene to achieve a therapeutic outcome in patients.

For distinct types of cells and tissues, there are numerous various methods of gene delivery.Transfection refers to the process of delivering genes to animals. Transformation refers to the process of delivering genes to bacteria or plants.

There are two types of vectors used for gene delivery:

• Recombinant viruses
• Synthetic vectors (viral and non-viral)
   

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Immune Responses and Viral Modulation of Immune Responses

The immune response is how your body recognises and protects itself against intruders, which can include a wide range of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungus that, if left unchecked, can seriously harm the health of the host organism.

There are two separate components Innate and adaptive immune responses, which combine to defend against pathogens.

1. The body's earliest defence against an invader is known as the innate branch, and it is recognised to have a nonspecific and fast response to any pathogen. Physical defences like skin and mucous membranes, immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes, and soluble substances like cytokines and complement are all parts of the innate immune response.
2. The adaptive branch is the body’s immune response, which targets specific antigens, takes longer to activate the necessary components. The adaptive branch includes cells like dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells as well as antibodies, sometimes known as immunoglobulin’s, which directly interact with antigen and are a crucial part of a strong response against an invader.

Pattern recognition receptors are used to identify and find pathogens (PRR). These receptors are surface-mounted macrophage components that can bind external invaders and start cellular signalling within the immune cell.
Betaherpesviruses like HCMV have a significant impact on host cell physiology and encode a wide range of functions that regulate both the immune response and the infected host cell (Mocarski, 2002, 2004). Major structural and non-structural proteins influence adaptive antibody or T-lymphocyte immunity as well as host cell transcriptional repression (Saffert and Kalejta, 2006; Tavalai et al., 2006); responses to interferon (Child et al., 2004; Khan et al., 2004); cell-intrinsic responses (Abate et al., 2004; Goldmacher, 2004); and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes.

The balance between host clearance and viral escape mechanisms may control many aspects of viral pathogenesis since the host immune components that are targets of HCMV modulation are also key host functions in preventing virus infection. HCMV appears to be able to avoid the full force of host innate and adaptive immunity, which allows the virus to survive, by lessening the total impact of antiviral defences.
 

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Plant and Agricultural Virology

Plant and agricultural virology is the study of viruses that infect plants. Virus connections with plants frequently lead to growth and yield limiting disease symptoms, ultimately leading to economic losses and continue to pose a threat to food security, especially in the developing world. Because there are no treatments that can be applied to plants in the field to control viral diseases in the same way that fungicides control fungal diseases, viral disease control is mainly achieved through the use of resistant plants or by preventing virus spread between plants.

The plant virology group studies the epidemiology and population dynamics of known viruses, as well as the discovery of new plant viruses and implementation of appropriate diagnostic tools for their detection. The most effective methods for plant virus eradication are in vitro techniques. In vitro thermotherapy-based methods, such as combining thermotherapy with shoot tip culture, chemotherapy, micrografting, or shoot tip cryotherapy, have been successfully established for the efficient eradication of various viruses from nearly all of the most economically important crops. Recent improvements in DNA sequencing technologies have enabled a paradigm shift in the discovering of novel plant virus variety, as well as changing existing ideas about viral evolution and interactions with their hosts.

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Gut Pathogens

The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is one of the greatest interfaces (250-400 m2) in the human body between the host, environmental factors, and antigens. The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is harbours a complex and dynamic population of bacteria known as the gut microbiota, which has a significant impact on the host during homeostasis and disease. Several factors contribute to the development of the human gut microbiota during infancy. Diet is considered as one of the most important factors in creating the gut microbiota throughout life.  Intestinal bacteria play a crucial role in maintaining immune and metabolic homeostasis and protecting against pathogens. 

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Insect Vector and Virus Epidemiology

Insect vector biology is deals with an insect that transmits pathogens, as well as its interactions with hosts and disease-causing organisms.

The study of viruses and their hosts is known as viral epidemiology. Viral disease transmission is an essential feature of viral epidemiology. Viral transmission modes include direct contact and contact with infectious fomites, contaminated food or drink, and insects.

Entomologists and epidemiologists try to predict the potential for development of an epidemic or pandemic, as well as to find effective measures to contain vector and virus outbreaks. They must try to account for a wide range of insect, host, and virus-related parameters, such as mode of transmission, length of infection, window of transmissibility, population density, living conditions, environment, and stability.
 

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Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases

Microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, fungus, and parasites cause infectious disorders.

Doctors suspect an infection based on symptoms, physical examination findings, and risk factors. First, doctors determine whether the patient is suffering from an infection or another sort of illness. Once doctors have determined that the patient has an infection, they must determine which microorganism is causing the infection. An infection can be caused by a variety of bacteria. For example, viruses, bacteria, and, in rare cases, fungi can all cause pneumonia. Each microorganism is treated differently. When a microbe is found, doctors can perform susceptibility testing to determine which medications are most effective against it, allowing effective treatment to begin sooner.
 

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Food and Environmental Virology

The study of pathogenic virus transmission through the environment (water, air, soil, etc.) and foods is known as food and environmental virology. 

Viruses are transmitted through foods in the form of very minute particles that cannot multiply but may be inactivated. Some of these viruses are found in infected animals' meat, milk, and other products. Human foodborne viral infections are mainly hepatitis A and gastroenteritis caused by norwalk-like viruses, which are shed in human feces and contaminated foods from sick people's hands or through sewage. These viruses are among the leading causes of reported foodborne disease across the globe. Heat and a few other methods can inactivate viruses in foods before they are eaten. 

The coronavirus pandemic has raised awareness of viruses' role as pathogens of concern. Virus presence and transmission are investigated using molecular genetic approaches, such as different PCR applications. Model viruses in cell culture can be used to determine how long viruses retain infectivity in various conditions and environments, such as on indoor surfaces, in air, and in water. These tools are used to find solutions to viruses spreading in the environment. In the absence of effective medications, other measures, such as hygiene, are crucial in preventing the spread of viral illnesses. 

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Animal Virology

Virology is the study of the infectious agents that cause disease in humans and animals. This covers the investigation of virulence underlying processes, virus epidemiology, and immunological responses to viruses.

It includes research on the pathogenicity, diagnostics, identification, epidemiology, and immunological responses to a variety of viral diseases, such as avian metapneumovirus, infectious bronchitis virus, feline calicivirus, mosquito-borne arboviruses, bluetongue virus, and schmallenberg virus.

Methods used include: diagnostic identification methods, ELISA, flow cytometry, transcriptomic and genomic technologies, epidemiology, proteomics and infection models.

The objectives of the research are to investigate the transmission channels and behaviour of pathogens during infections and to use this knowledge to develop more effective therapeutic strategies or vaccinations to enhance the health of animals.

Animal virology encompasses a variety of viral families associated with a wide range of clinical diseases. These include the areas listed below:

• Molecular immunopathogenesis of avian respiratory pathogens
• Virus causing porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
• Evolution, and transmission of significant veterinary viral pathogens
• Malignant catarrhal fever of domestic cattle
• Mosquito-borne arboviruses

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Viral Vectors

Viral vectors are tools used to deliver genetic material into cells. This procedure can be performed inside a living organism (in vivo) or in cell culture (in vitro). Viruses have evolved specific systems for transporting their genomes inside the cells they infect. Modified viruses are used as viral vectors (or 'carriers') in gene therapy to shield the new gene from degradation while delivering it to the "gene cassette" in target cells. The delivery of genes or other genetic material by a vector is referred to as transduction, and the infected cells are referred to as transduced. 

Viral vectors successfully persuade target cells to take the new gene, remove it from the virus particle, and transport it to the cell nucleus. Viral vectors can be used in gene therapy to transmit functional genes to replace defective genes and cure genetic disorders. Viral vectors can be used as a vaccine platform to express and deliver pathogenic antigens in order to stimulate an immune response by mimicking a natural infection. Viral vectors can also be used to specifically target and kill tumour cells in oncolytic therapies.  

There are various types of viral vectors that can be used to carry nucleic acids into the genetic makeup of cells, including retrovirus, lentivirus, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, and herpes simplex virus each having their own set of benefits and drawbacks for certain applications. 

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Vaccines

A vaccination is a sort of medication that prepares the body's immune system to combat a disease it has not previously encountered. Vaccines are intended to prevent disease rather than to treat an existing illness.

Vaccines can be prophylactic ((to reduce the consequences of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to treat a disease that has already manifested, such as cancer). Some vaccines provide full sterilising immunity, which fully prevents infection.

Vaccination is a term used to describe the administering of vaccines. The best way to avoid infectious diseases is by vaccination, which has also led to the global eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases like polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world.

An antigen can be used in a number of ways, including:

• Attenuated live viruses – weaker varieties of a live virus. They do not make people sick, but they do trigger an immune response. The MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) and chickenpox vaccines are two examples.
• Inactivated viruses – a virus that has been destroyed. Antibodies will still be produced even though the virus is gone. The polio vaccination is an example.
• Recombinant—viruses created by genetic engineering in a laboratory. This allows for the reproduction of a certain gene. Multiple strains of the HPV (human papillomavirus) exist. To protect against strains that cause cervical cancer, the HPV vaccine can be modified.
• Conjugate – bacteria and virus antigens may be coated in a polysaccharide, a sugar like substances to defend themselves. Conjugate vaccines work around the disguise to identify the bacteria. An example of a conjugate is the Hib vaccination.
• Subunit—uses exclusively the antigens that trigger an immunological response. An example of subunit vaccine is the flu shot.
• Toxoids—inactivated variations of bacterial toxins are utilised to create the immunity. An example of toxoids is Tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.
• All vaccines are made to specifically combat illnesses. However, two vaccines that are frequently advised also provide cancer protection:
• Hepatitis B—a hepatitis B vaccine can aid in protecting you against these liver diseases because it is a cause of alcohol cirrhosis and liver cancer. Hepatitis A has a vaccination as well.
• HPV, which is the most common cause of cervical cancer and precancerous cervical dysplasia in females. Various HPV strains in men can result in genital warts. Penis, anus, and the back of the mouth and throat cancers can be brought on by other types.
   

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Virus-Cell, Virus-Microbe, and Virus-Host Interactions

A virus is an infectious microorganism composed of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) covered by a protein coat. A virus cannot replicate on its own; rather, it must infect cells and utilise the components of the host cell to replicate. Viruses frequently result in the death of the host cell, causing harm to the host organism. Examples of well-known viruses that cause human disease are AIDS, COVID-19, measles, and smallpox.

Virulence is the degree of pathogenicity of a pathogen (bacteria, fungi, or viruses) and is determined by the pathogen's capacity to penetrate and proliferate within the host.

Viruses continue to be a major contributor to the global burden of illness via acute and chronic infections that have a significant economic impact in addition to causing an increase in mortality and morbidity. Despite the enormous progress in our understanding of the antiviral immune response and the accessibility of therapies, the prevalence of existing and novel viral infections, particularly in developing nations, is on the rise. Antiviral resistance of hepatitis C virus (HCV), influenza A virus (IAV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major problem. Multiple processes, including polymerase infidelity, contribute to the accumulation of mutations in the viral genome, which is one of the primary causes of rising resistances. In light of this, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations have advocated for a more effective control of viral illnesses.

Virus-host interaction is defined as the process by which viruses sustain themselves within their host species on a molecular, cellular, and population level.

Virus–host interaction is a complex phenomena that is frequently virus- and host cell-specific.

The study of virus–host cell interactions encompasses the entirety of virology and provides some of the most crucial insights into this discipline. As viruses are intracellular parasites, they rely on their host cells for the energy, macromolecular synthesis machinery, and workbenches necessary for genome replication and particle assembly. Consequently, viruses have evolved a vast array of ways for exploiting normal host cell activities. This exploitation is frequently accompanied with damage to the host cell, which may be one of the primary causes of the pathology and disease induced by viruses.

Our understanding of animal viruses has expanded dramatically during the past few decades. These advancements have led to a thorough understanding of the structure and makeup of the viral genome and the virus particle, as well as the replication mechanisms employed by viruses and the regulation of viral gene expression during infection. Understanding the virus's growth cycle has proven to be easier than understanding the virus's interaction with the host cell. 

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Viral Structure and Assembly

Viruses are smaller and simpler than unicellular microbes, because they carry only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, never both. As viruses lack ribosomes, mitochondria, and other organelles, they rely entirely on their host cells for energy production and protein synthesis. They only replicate within the cells of the host they infect. In contrast to microorganisms, many viruses may replicate from their genome, a single nucleic acid molecule, in appropriate cells; their nucleic acid alone is infectious. Outside a susceptible cell, the viral particle is metabolically inert, similar to a bacterial spore; but, while reproducing within a cell, it shows all the characteristics of life.

The new classification of microorganisms is known as filterable viruses. Filtration investigations have revealed that the size of virus particles (virions) ranges from around the size of the tiniest unicellular bacteria (300 nm) to things just larger than the largest protein molecules (20 nm). The virion of simple viruses consists of a single molecule of nucleic acid covered by a protein coat, the capsid; the capsid and its nucleic acid constitute the nucleocapsid.

Protozoa, fungi, bacteria, mycoplasmas, rickettsiae, and chlamydiae are the unicellular microorganisms in descending order of size and complexity. They always have DNA as their genetic information repository, RNA, and their own machinery for creating energy and macromolecules. Microorganisms increase in size by synthesizing their own macromolecular components (nucleic acid, protein, carbohydrate, and lipid) and by undergoing binary fission.

Protein-protein interactions between viral structural and non-structural proteins and the coordinated action of host factors comprise the process of virus assembly.

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Arboviruses

When a group of viruses infects a person by the bite of an infected arthropod (insect), such as a tick or mosquito, it is referred to as an arboviral disease. Typically, these infections take place in the warm months when ticks and mosquitoes are most active. Arboviruses can affect both plants and animals, including people. Arbovirus infection symptoms in humans typically appear 3–15 days after virus exposure and remain for three–four days. Fever, headaches, and malaise are the most typical clinical signs of infection; however encephalitis and viral hemorrhagic fever can also occur.

The viruses can cause very severe symptoms or no symptoms or very mild flu-like symptoms. The best defence against these unpleasant viral infections is to avoid insect bites.

Arboviruses come in a variety of forms. Arboviruses are categorised into distinct genera. The following are the three main genera of arboviruses that infect humans:

• Flaviviruses include japanese encephalitis, west nile virus, zika virus, dengue fever, and yellow fever.
• Ross river virus, eastern equine virus, and western equine virus are examples of toga virus.
• Bunyviruses include the jamestown canyon virus, la crosse virus, and california encephalitis.

Arboviruses can be classified into two classes based on their clinical characteristics and symptoms:

1)Non-neuroinvasive: The symptoms of non-neuroinvasive arboviruses vary slightly. Since the nervous system is unaffected, they normally do not result in altered mental states like confusion or seizures. Fever is one of the non-neuroinvasive symptoms, along with the symptoms listed below:

• Muscle aches
• Joint discomfort
• Headache
• Rash 
• Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea 
• Upset stomach
• Seizures

2)Neuroinvasive: Neuroinvasive diseases have signs that can infect the nervous system. The following are signs and symptoms of neuroinvasive, which also include a sudden onset of fever:

• Headache
• Stiff neck 
• Soreness in the muscles
• Confusion or disorientation 
• Weakness in the arms and legs
• Seizures

There are vaccines available for the following arboviral illnesses:

• Rift valley fever
• Tick-borne encephalitis
• Yellow fever and japanese encephalitis (only veterinary use)
   

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Influenza Flu

Flu is a contagious respiratory illness brought on by influenza viruses that can sometimes spread to the lungs as well as the nose and throat. It can lead to mild to severe illness, and occasionally even death. Getting vaccinated against the flu every year is the greatest approach to prevent the virus.

The following are typical flu symptoms:

• Fever
• Aching muscles
• Chills and sweats
• Headache
• Dry, persistent cough
• Exhaustion and weakness 
• Runny or stuffy nose 
• Sore throat
• Eye pain 
• More frequently in children than in adults, vomiting and diarrhoea.

These signs and symptoms appear one to four days (usually two) after being exposed to the virus and continue for two to eight days. Pneumonia, which can be brought on by the virus or a subsequent bacterial infection, can develop from influenza. Meningitis, encephalitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and worsening of pre-existing medical conditions like asthma and cardiovascular disease are some additional complications of infection.

The main method of influenza virus transmission in people is through respiratory droplets produced by coughing and sneezing. Flu viruses A, B, C, and D are the four different types of influenza viruses. Influenza A virus (IAV) is mostly carried by aquatic birds and is also common in many mammals, including humans and pigs. Influenza B virus (IBV), influenza C virus (ICV), primarily infects human and influenza D virus (IDV) found in cattle and pigs. Human IAV, IBV, and ICV circulate and generate seasonal epidemics, while ICV predominantly affects children and causes a moderate infection. IDV has the ability to infect humans but is not known to be harmful.

 

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Zika Virus

Zika virus infection is a virus spread by mosquitoes that normally has no symptoms but can occasionally result in fever, rash, joint pain, or an infection of the membrane covering the white of the eye (conjunctivitis, or pinkeye). Microcephaly (a serious birth defect) and eye abnormalities in the baby can be brought on by zika virus infection in a pregnant woman.

The zika virus is spread by mosquitoes, but it can also be transferred from one person to another through sexual contact, blood transfusions, and from a pregnant woman to her unborn child. Microcephaly and other congenital malformations in the infant, such as limb contractures, high muscle tone, eye abnormalities, and hearing loss, are caused by zika virus infection during pregnancy. Congenital zika syndrome is the name given to these clinical features as a whole.

Most zika virus victims exhibit no symptoms, and many are unaware that they are infected. If they do, they normally begin 3–14 days after infection and persist 2–7 days on average. Infections that are severe enough to demand hospitalisation are rare. Zika virus seldom results in death.

Guillain-barre syndrome, neuropathy, and myelitis can also be brought on by the zika virus, especially in adults and older children. A nerve condition known as Guillain-Barre syndrome results in temporary sensory loss or pins-and-needles sensations as well as muscle weakness.
 

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Staphylococcal Infection

The staphylococcus bacteria are what cause staph infections. Many healthy people frequently have these types of germs on their skin or in their noses. These bacteria frequently do no harm or only result in minor skin diseases. However, staph infections can become fatal if the bacteria spread more into your body and get into your bloodstream, joints, bones, lungs, or heart. Life-threatening staph infections are becoming more common in apparently healthy individuals.

There are numerous forms of infections that staph bacteria can cause, including:

• Skin infections, the most prevalent staph infection types.
• Bacteremia, a bloodstream infection. Sepsis, an extremely dangerous immune response to infection, can result from this.
• Bone infections
• Endocarditis, a condition in which the heart's chambers and valves' inner linings become infected.
• Food poisoning
• Peumonia
• Toxic shock syndrome (TSS), a potentially fatal illness brought on by toxins produced by specific bacterial species.

There are different symptoms with certain conditions when staph infections affect parts of your body other than your skin. Following are some of these conditions and their symptoms:

• Food poisoning: Vomiting and diarrhoea are two serious symptoms of.
• Mastitis: This condition, which primarily affects breast-feeding women, causes inflammation, pain, and abscesses.
• Sepsis, commonly known as blood poisoning, is brought on by staph bacteria in the bloodstream. Fever and dangerously low blood pressure (hypotension) are symptoms.
• Toxic shock syndrome (TSS): A severe form of septicemia, TSS symptoms includes fever, pains in the muscles, and a rash that resembles sunburn.
• Endocarditis: Staph infections frequently result in this infection of the lining of the heart muscle. Your heart's physical muscle and heart valves may both be impacted. Fever, sweating, weight loss, and a rapid heartbeat are all symptoms.

Antibiotics and washing the affected region are typically used as treatments. But certain staph infections develop a resistance to standard drugs and stop responding to them. In order to treat staph infections that are resistant to antibiotics, health care providers may have to use drugs that have more adverse effects.
 

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Tuberculosis

The bacteria known as mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis (TB), primarily damages the lungs but can also harm the kidneys, spine, or brain. The disease TB is treatable and preventable. When someone coughs or sneezes, tiny droplets of bacteria enter the air and can spread tuberculosis between people. 

You won't always feel ill if you have TB. The sickness comes in two forms:

1. Latent tuberculosis: Despite the fact that the germs are already present inside of you, your immune system prevents them from spreading. You have no symptoms and you are not infectious. The virus is still there, though, and it could become active at any time. If you have HIV, have recently had an infection, have an atypical chest X-ray, have an impaired immune system, are at high risk for reactivation, or meet other criteria, your doctor will prescribe medication to stop active TB. There are no signs of latent TB. It can be found if you have it through a skin or blood test.
2. Active TB: You become ill as a result of the bacteria spreading. The sickness can be transmitted to others. Adults with current TB cases account for 90% of all cases. The following are typical signs of active TB: 

• A cough that lasts longer than 3 weeks
• Chest pain
• Bloody coughing
• Constantfatigue
• Night sweats
• Chills
• Fever
• Loss of appetite
• Weight loss.

Antibiotics are used to treat both active and latent TB infections. It's crucial to take your medication as directed in order to ensure that you eliminate all TB bacteria from your body.

1. You typically take medications for latent TB infections for 3 to 9 months. Treatment makes it less likely that you may have TB disease in the future.
2. You often need to take medications for active TB disease for 6 to 12 months. If you take your medication properly, treatment will almost always cure you.
3. You must stay at home for a few weeks if you have TB disease in your throat or lungs to prevent the spread of the illness to others. You can defend those you are living with by: 

• Covering your mouth and nose.
• When windows can be opened.
• Avoid approaching them too closely.

Along with active or latent TB, you might also learn about various TB types, including the most common type, pulmonary (lung) TB. But the bacteria can also damage other parts of your body, including your lungs, which can result in extrapulmonary tuberculosis (or TB outside of the lung). The following symptoms of systemic miliary TB, which can affect the entire body:

• Meningitis, an inflammation of the brain.
• High levels of white blood cells in your urine, also known as sterile pyuria.
• Pott's disease, commonly known as TB spondylitis or spinal tuberculosis.
• Addison's disease, an adrenal gland disease.
• Hepatitis, an infection of the liver
• Lymphadenitis, commonly known as scrofula or TB lymphadenitis, in your neck.
   

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West Nile Virus

West nile fever is brought on by the single-stranded RNA virus known as the west nile virus (WNV). It belongs to the same genus as the zika virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus, flavivirus, and is a member of the family flaviviridae. Mosquitoes, primarily culex species, are the main vectors of the virus. The virus shares genetic ancestry with the family of viruses that cause japanese encephalitis.

Humans, birds, mosquitoes, horses, and a few other creatures can contract the west nile virus. WNV in humans cannot be treated or prevented by vaccines. Fortunately, most WNV carriers don't exhibit any symptoms. Fever and other symptoms are present in one in every five infected people.

Typical symptoms and warning indications include:

• Fatigue
• Skin rash 
• Vomiting 
• Diarrhea 
• Headache
• Body aches

A serious sickness involving the central nervous system, such as encephalitis (brain inflammation), or meningitis (inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord), affects about 1 in 150 affected individuals.

• High fever, headache, stiff neck, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, convulsions, muscle weakness, vision loss, numbness, and paralysis are some of the symptoms of severe sickness.
• Although persons of any age can get severe disease, those over 60 are more likely to do so if they contract an infection (1 in 50 people). Furthermore, people with particular medical conditions, such as cancer, diabetes, hypertension, kidney disease, and organ transplant recipients, are more vulnerable.
• It may take weeks or months to fully recover from a severe illness. Some long-lasting effects could be felt on the central nervous system.
• About one in ten patients who experience serious illnesses of the central nervous system pass away.

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Herpes

Herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus infection (HSV). Along with other symptoms, it also results in sores or blisters developing in or around the mouth or genitalia.

The most widespread viruses are:

• The virus that causes chickenpox and shingles is herpes zoster.
• Type 1 HSV (Herpes simplex virus): Cold sores or fever blisters on the mouth or face are the most common symptoms of type 1 HSV. HSV-1 is spread through saliva contact (spit). Infected people may experience tingling, stinging, or burning around their mouths before sores appear. Each person experiences these symptoms differently and at different intervals.
• Type 2 HSV (Herpes simplex virus): In most cases, type 2 leads to sores on the genitalia (sexual organs) that develop on or around the genitalia, anus, buttocks, and inner thighs. Inside the vagina, sores can also appear. Sexual interaction is how HSV-2 spreads. Genital herpes symptoms that are mild or non-existent may go unnoticed. One or more vaginal or anal blisters or ulcers are present when symptoms of genital herpes first appear. Fever, bodily aches, and swollen lymph nodes are additional signs of a fresh infection.

Herpes has no known treatment; however it is treatable and can lessen the risk of recurrent outbreaks and partner transmission. For those with HSV infection, antiviral drugs including acyclovir, famciclovir, and valacyclovir are the most effective treatments (see WHO recommendations). However, they cannot treat the infection; they can only help to lessen the intensity and frequency of the symptoms.
 

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Ebola

The ebola virus affects the entire body, causing severe tissue damage and inflammation. It is referred to as a hemorrhagic fever virus because it can disrupt the body's clotting mechanism and cause internal bleeding as blood leaks from tiny blood vessels. The ebola virus causes an acute, deadly illness that, if left untreated, frequently results in death.

EVD mostly affects nonhuman primates (such as monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees) and people. It is brought on by an infection with a subfamily of the ebolavirus:

• Ebola virus (species Zaire ebolavirus)
• Sudan virus (species Sudan ebolavirus)
• Tai Forest virus (species Tai Forest ebolavirus, formerly Ivory Coast ebolavirus)
• Bundibugyo virus (species Bundibugyo ebolavirus)
• Reston virus (species Reston ebolavirus)
• Bombali virus (species Bombali ebolavirus)

Only four of these (ebola, sudan, tai forest, and bundibugyo viruses) have been linked to human disease. Pigs and nonhuman primates can get sick from the reston virus, but humans haven't been affected by it yet.

Blood, saliva, sweat, tears, mucus, vomit, faeces, breast milk, urine, and semen from ebola-infected individuals can be directly contacted to spread the disease. Touching objects that have been polluted with these fluids also spreads it. After contracting the virus, symptoms typically appear anywhere from two days to three weeks later. Typically, fever, sore throat, headaches, and muscle pain are the initial signs of an infection. These are typically followed by nausea, diarrhoea, rash, and a reduction in the function of the liver and kidneys, at which time some persons start to bleed both internally and externally.

Ebola has no known treatment. For the treatment of ebola, two medications have received approval:

• Inmazeb (combination of three monoclonal antibodies atoltivimab, maftivimab, and odesivimab-ebgn). 
• A monoclonal antibody administered via injection is called ansuvimab-zykl (ebanga). It aids in blocking the virus' entry into the cell by stopping it from binding to the cell receptor.
   

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Dengue

Dengue fever, which is spread by mosquitoes, is common in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Female mosquitoes, primarily of the species Aedes aegypti and albopictus, are the major carriers of the dengue virus. These mosquitoes are also carriers of the zika, yellow fever, and chikungunya viruses. A high fever and flu-like symptoms are brought on by mild dengue fever. The severe variety of dengue fever, also known as dengue hemorrhagic fever, can result in severe bleeding, a sudden drop in blood pressure (shock), and even death.

Any of the following signs and symptoms may accompany a temperature of 104 F (40 C) caused by dengue fever:

• Headache
• Muscle, bone, or joint pain
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Pain behind the eyes
• Swollen glands
• Rash

Most people return to normal in a week. Sometimes, symptoms get worse and might even be fatal. It's referred to as severe dengue (dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome). When your blood vessels are harmed and leaky, severe dengue occurs. The number of platelets in your blood also decreases. Shock, haemorrhaging, organ failure, and even death could result from this.

A life-threatening illness, severe dengue fever can manifest early warning signals. The warning signals, which typically start within the first day or two after your fever has subsided, may include:

• Blood in your urine, stools, or vomit
• Severe stomach pain
• Persistent vomiting
• Bleeding from the gums or nose
• Fatigue
• Irritability or restlessness
• Under-the-skin bleeding that resembles bruising
• Severe stomach pain

There is no particular drug that can be used to treat dengue. The two main defences against dengue are avoiding mosquito bites and receiving a vaccination. If you've already experienced dengue, you should only acquire the dengue vaccine (DengvaxiaTM). Your risk of getting a severe case of dengue may be reduced if you later get a different strain of the virus. If you have never had dengue, it is not advisable to obtain the vaccine.

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